i =    (when i > 1)

when the solute undergoes dissociation in the solution.

It’s defined as the number of molecules or ions that participate in the rate determining step.

N-Methylmethanamine.

CH₃ CH₂ COCH₂ CH₃

   Pentan - 3 - One

Hydrogen Peroxide.

Artificial sweetners agents are chemicals that sweeten food. Unlike natural sweetners they do not add calories to our body. Some artificial sweetners are saccharin, sucrolose.

These are polymers of monosaccharides.

Eg. Starch, Glycogen etc.

   =      =  0.44 

It lies in the range of 0.414 - 0.723

The co-ordination number of A⁺  = 6

Initial conc. A = 100, final conc. B = 80, T = 10 min, So

K = -2.303 log(BA)/T

= -2.303 log(80100)/10

K = 0.0223  => final conc. C = 25 (because 75 of reaction finished)

New Reaction T = -2.303 log(CA)/K

 = -2.303 log(25100)/0.0223 

 T  = 62.17 min.

Ore contains rocky impurities which are needed to be separated before processing. This process is called concentration of ore. The principle of froth floatation process is that sulptids ores are preferentially wetted by the pine oil, the particles are wetted by water. In the process a suspension of powdered ore is made with water. The frothis formed which is lighter and skimmed off. The frothis dried for recovery of the ore particles.

Addition Polymer is made when the monomers lose an atom or group of atoms while forming the polymers. A condensation polymer is formed when monomers bond to each other without the loss of atoms.

This type of isomerism is common in hetroleptic complex. It arises due to the different possible geometrical arrangement of ligands.  

Mutarotation is the change in the optical rotation because of the change in equilibrium between two anomers, when the corresponding stereocenter interconvert. Cyclic sugars show mutarotation as α and β anomeric forms interconvert.

Palladium – catalysed synthes of aryl amines. Starting materials are aryl halides or pseudohalides and primary or secondary amines.

K₂Cr₂O₇ contains dischromate anion.

This Cr₂O₇ is responsible for the change in colour of K₂Cr₂O₇ altogether.

=> When the solⁿ is acidic (pH < 7) = Orange colour.

=> When the solⁿ is alkaline (pH > 7) = Yellow colour.

Molar Mass (M) = 108g/mol

Density (d) = 10.5g/cm³

Edge length (a) 409pm

Z =

Z =

=  4

Number of atoms = 4

Element packed in FCC structure.

(i) Freezing point of depression is a colligative property observed in solⁿ that result from the introduction solute molecule to the solvents. The freezing point of solⁿ are lower that that of pure solvent and is directly proportional to the molality of the solute.

ΔT_f = T_f (solvent) – T_f (solution) = K_f x m

Where ΔT_f is freezing point depression, T_f (solution) is the freezing point of solⁿ, T_f (solvent), K_f is the freezing point of depression constant and mis the molarity.

(ii) Required -> molality

For molality, you need to know the moles of ethylene glycol.

No. Of moles  =    =    =  0.72 moles

Molality =     =   

               =      =  1.2 molality

ΔT_f   =   m x K_f

         =  1.2 x 1.86            [ i=1 since α = 0]

         =  2.232⁰

Variation of motet conductivity with strong electrolytes

For strong electrolytes the motet conductivity increases slowly with dilution:- The plot between the motet conductivity& is  a straight line having y-intercept equal to E^Om can be determined from the graph or with the help of kohlrausch law

Where A is constant equal to slope of line, the value of ‘A’ depend on type of electrolytes at particular temp.

Variation of molar conductivity with concentration for weak electrolyte:-

For weak electrolyte the graph plotted b/w molar conductivity & c1/2 (where c is concentration) is not straight line weak electrolytes have lower molar conductivites& lower degree of dissociation at higher concentration which increase steepy at lower concentration Emcnnot be molar conductivity to zero concentrations kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions for limiting molar conductivity Em of weak electrolytes.

Conductivity decrease with decrease in concentration as the number of ions per unit volume tha carry in a sol decrease on dilution…… Variation of molaconcentratin is different for strong & weak electrolytes.

E_cell = E⁰_cell- =   log       --------(i)

E⁰_cell = E⁰(cu2+/cu) - E⁰- E⁰(Mg2+/Mg)

E⁰(cu2+/cu) = 0.34V  ,   E⁰(Mg2+/Mg)  =  -2.37V

E⁰_cell = 0.34V  - (-2.37) = 2.71

Substitute equation in 1

E_cell= 2.71 – 0.0295 = 2.6805 V

Coagulation :- The phenomenon of precipitation of the colloidal practice by the addition of excess of an electrolyte is called coagulation for eg:- Milk

Difference:-

(i) Among the noble gases only Xenon is well known to form chemical compounds-only xenon is known to form chemical compounds because Xenon is large in size & having higher atomic Mass. Due to having large atomic radius the force of attraction b/w the outer electron & the protons in the nucleus is weaker

(ii) Oxygen is smaller in size as compared to sulphur. Also the inter molecular force in Oxygen as weak van der Walls, which cause it to exist gas . On the other hand, sulphur does not form M2 molecular but exist as a puckered structure held tighter by strong covalent bonds. Hence it is solid.

(i) In alkanes, the only intermolecular forces are van der Walls dispersion forces – Hydrogen bonds are much stronger than these & therefore it takes more energy to separate alcohol molecule than it does a separate alkane molecule. That’s the main reason that the boiling points are higher.

(ii) Discuss oxidation of Aldehyde, then Carboxylic Acid. Secondary Alcohol to ketone . Tertiary alcohols?

Primary Alcohalto Aldehyde, then Carboxylic Acid. Secondary Alcohol to ketone. Tertiary Alcohol No reaction. Oxidation is usually with potassium dichromate sol. Which turns from orange to green.

Oxidation of Alcohol:-

(i) Cannizzaro reaction:-

This redox disproportional of non-enolizable aldehyde to carboxylic acids & alcohol

L-Keto aldehyde gives the product of intramolecular disproportional.

(ii) Write Adol Condensation:-

(iii) On the other hand in case of phenol are –ve charge is less effectively delocalized over one oxygen atom & less electronegative carbon atom in phenoxide ion

The carboxylate ions exhibit higher stability in compared to Phenoxide ion. Hence the carboxylic acid is more acidic than phenols.

(i) The carbonyl carbon in ketons& aldehydes is more electrophilic than carboxylic acid. Because the lone pair on oxygen atom attached to hydrogen atom in the - COOH group are involved in resonance thereby making the carbon atom less electrophilic

(ii) Aldehydes &Ketons have high dipole moment due to the presence of oxygen atom in term that is highly electronegative.  The bond in the carbonyl group is lesser than carbon-oxygen single bond in alcohols etc leading to more polarity in the carbonyl group.

(i) This is due to inner pair effect. Pb has four electrons in its outermost shell, two are in s- orbital & two in p-orbital. Due to d-block contraction the s-orbital are more strongly held than s-electron in upper periods in the same group. The s-electron are inert & are not that easily removed to give the group of valency 4. Therefore, Pb tends to forms 2+ ion instead.

(ii) SF₄ is assymmeterical& has a lone pair of electrons on the sulphur atom, which can react further. In SF₆ all of the electrons are paired, giving great stability to the molecule & reducing its reactivity

(iii) The bond angle will be 90⁰& 180 in the plane of molecules. Acc to lewis structure, XeF₂ has three lone pairs & two bonds to the central Xe atoms. Five valence atomic orbitals on Xe must hyberdised to form five sp³d hybrid orbitals

Structure of XeF₂

These are arranged in trigonal bipyramid geometry 3 non – bonded pair of electrons prefer the equatorial position.

(i) The Haber Process combines nitrogens form the air with hydrogen derived mainly from natural gas into ammonia Hxn is reversible & product of ammonia is exothermic

N₂(g) + 3H₂ (g) ßà 2NH₃(g) AH = - 92KJ mol^-1

(ii) 3KNO₂ + O₃ → 3KNO₃

                               (Potassium Nitrate)

Potassium Nitrate itself strong Oxidising Agent So, it will give potassium Nitrate, or we can say reduce Nitrate. Ozone usually reacts with nitrite to give Nitrate which is less toxis as compared to nitrites.

(iii) Iodine pentafluoride is an interhalogen compound

I₅ contains five bonded & one nonbounded electrons & square pyramidal molecular geometry.

(i) Transition elements have high effective nuclear charge & number of valence electrons they from very strong metallic bonds. As a result, the enthalpy of atomization of transition netal is high.

(ii) The Mn is KMnO₄ exist in + 7 state

In acidic medium, this Mn+7 goes to Mn+2 state & gain of % electrons

Equivalent weight  = Molar mass / No of electrons gain or lost

Equ. weight = 158 / 5  = 31.6g

For alkaline medium, there are two possibilities

(1) Alkaline neutral

Mn+7 changes into Mn+4 gain of 3 electrons

Eq.wt = 158/3 = 52.67g

(2) Highly alkaline

Mn+7 changes into Mn+6 , gain of 1 electrons

Eq.wt = 158/1 = 158g

In many cases through alkine medium, it mostly means the neutral one, for the highly alkaline thing.

(iii)  Consequences of Lanthanoid contraction:-

• Separation of Lanthanoid is possible due to Lanthanoid Contraction.
• it is due to Lanthanoid contraction that there is variation in the basic strength of Lanthanoid contraction.
• due to Lanthanoid Contraction, size of mions decrease & increase in covalent character in M- OH & basic character decrease.
• The atomic radii of second row transition elements are almost similar the third row transition elements because increase in size on moving down the group

(i) General Configuration of elements:-

S - block elements is = ns^1-2

p - block element is = ns²

d - block element = (n-1)d^1-10 ns^0-2

f – block element = (n-2)^f1-4 (n-1)d^0-1 , ns²

uses of d-block elements & s-block elements , p elements

d – block

1. iron& amalgam, stell are utilized broadly development industry

2. Tungsten comes in use in making electrical fibres

3. Magnese dioxide comes in used part of dry battery cells.

4. Titanium is part of manufacture of airstrip &spacestup

S – block

5. lithium is used in making electrochemical cells.

6. lithium in combination with magnesium. It is used to make armour plates.

P – block

7. p – elements are commonly used as mutagenic agents.

8. The p – block elements encodes for the protein P transposase & terminal inverted repeat which is important for mobility.

F – block

9. f-block elements are Lanthanide alloys utilized for the creation of instrumental steels and heat resistance

10. Carbides, Borides & nitrides of Lanthanoids in use as refractories.

(ii) Although copper has 3d¹⁰ 4s¹ configuration, it can lose one electron from this arrangement. Cu²⁺has  3d⁹configuration. So, according to the transition metal that cations have partially filled (n-1)d subshell, copper can be regarded as transition metal.

(iii) Structure of chromate ion:-

(i) Wurtz reaction:-

(ii) Sandmeyer's reaction:-

(iii) Hunsdiecker reaction:-

CH₃ CooAg + Br₂  CH₃Br + AgBr + CO₂

(iv) Reimer-Tiemann reaction:-

(v) Friedel Craft's acylation :-

(vi) Ullman reaction:-

(i) Haloarenes are more stable because they can donate there lone pair of electrons inside the ring for resonance. Due to resonance, the electron density increase more at ortho & para position the halogen atom I effect & having tendency to withdraw electrons from the benzene ring. As a result the ring gets activated as compared to benzene &electrophillic substitution rxn occur

(ii) Alkyl halides react with AgNo₂ to give R-NO₂ or R-ono Explain?

 On treating ethanolic sol of nitroalkane with silver nitrate (Ag-O-N=0 , Ag NO₂₎ , nitroalkane is formed because since the bond b/w Ag- O is covalent, the lone pair on nitrogen act as attacking site for nucleophilic rxn

        R – x + Ag No₂à R - No₂+ Agx

But on other hand, if haloalkane is treated with potassium nitrite (KNo₂), alkyl nitrite is formed as major product because the bond b/w K-O ionic nature, -ve charge on Oxygen serve attacking site

R-X + KNo₂à R – O – N = O + Kx