[i = 1] when the solute doesn’t undergo any dissociation or association in a solution that is a non-electrolyte solute.

It’s defined as the time taken for half of the reaction to be completed ie the time in which the concentration of the reactant is reduced to half of its original value is called half period of a reaction.

N-phenylbenzenamine or Diphenylamine.

Cephalexin, Amoxicillin.

Analgesics are medicines that help to control pain and reduce fever. Analgesics that are available over counter include Aspirin, Ketoprofen.

Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars. They are the simplest form of sugars and the most basic unit of carbohydrates. General formula is C_nH_2nO_n.

They are usually colourless, water soluble.

Radius of Na⁺ = 100pm

Radius of Cl^- = ?

Radius ratio

Radius ratio

Hence radius of anion B is 241pm.

K =

t =

Given:  t^1/2 = 44.1min

              Ao = 100

              At = (100 - 90) = 10

               K =  = 0.0157

Substitute all values in formula of first order.

t =

t =  * 1

A = 146.7min.

Magnetic separation method is used when either the ore particles or the gangue associated with it possesses magnetic properties eg chromite Fe(CrO₂)₂ being magnetic can be separated from non magnetic silicon gangue by finely ground ore magnetic separation.

This type of isomerism occurs in compounds containing both cation and anion entities. Isomers differ in the distribution of ligands in the co-ordination of anion and cation parts. The complex [Co(NH₃)₆]  [Cr(CN)₆] are the examples of co-ordination isomerism. It occurs due to exchange of ligands between cation and anion.

Monday’s Molecule #46 was the chemical reaction shown above. Sucrose is an optically active compound, which causes polarized light to rotate when you shine it through a solution of sucrose. The rotation is measured by a polarimeter.

Primary amines can be identified by Hinsberg test. In this test, the amines are allowed to react with Hinsberg reagent,(C₆H₅SO₂Cl) benzene sulfonyl chloride. Three types of amines react with Hinesberg reagent. Primary amines react with benzene sulfonyl chloride to form N-alkyl benzene sulfonyl amide which is soluble in alkali.

Potassium permanganate (KMnOâ‚„) is prepared from pyrolusite ore (MnO₂). Pyrolusite ore is fused with alkali metal hydroxide like potassium hydroxide in the presence of air or oxidizing agent like potassium nitrate to give a dark green potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄). Potassium manganate in a disproportional acidic or neutral solution gives potassium permanganate.

2MnO₂ + 4KOH + O₂→ 2K₂MnO₄ + 2H₂O

3MnO₄ + 4H → 2MnO₄ + MnO₂ + 2H₂O

Potassium permanganate is prepared by alkaline oxidative fusion of pyrolusite ore and followed by electrolytic oxidation of manganate (4) ion.

2MnO₂ + 4KOH + O₂ → 2K₂MnO₄ + 2H₂O

Mn⁴⁺ (electrolytic oxidation) → MnO₄ + e^-

Gram atomic mass of Cr(m) = 52.0gmol^-1

Edge length of unit cell(a) = 289pm.

Density of unit cell(p) = 7.2gcm^-3

Avogadro No.(No) = 6.022 * 10²³ mol^-1

P = OR    Z =     ----(1)

Put values in equation (1);

Z =

Z = 2

Hence the unit cell has 2 atoms. It is body centre in nature.

(i) Both boiling point elevation and freezing point depression are proportional to the lowering of vapour pressure in a dilute solution. These properties are colligatives in systems where the solute is essentially confined to the liquid phase. Since boiling point is the temperature at which vapour pressure of any liquid becomes equal to that of the atmosphere. Less molecules will leave the surface because of the solute dissolution, it will take more temperature to get pressure and no matter which solute eg glucose. Same elevation if taken in same concentration.

(ii) T_b⁰ = 353.23k

W₂ = 1.80g

M₂ = ?

W₁ = 90g

T_b = 354.11k

T_b = 354.11 – 353.23

    = 0.88k

K_b = 2.53 kgmol^-1

T_b  =

M₂ =

=> 57.5g

Molar mass of solute is = 57.5g

Corrosion refers to the formation of undesirable compounds such as oxides, sulphides or carbonates at the surface of metal by reaction with moisture and other atmospheric gases.

Factors affecting corrosion:-

• A rise in temperature increases the rate of reaction
• Presence of natural water increases rusting of iron
• Impurities help in setting up voltaic cells which increase speed of corrosion.
• When iron surface is coated with a layer of metal such as alloys, rate of corrosion is retarded.
• The more the reactivity of the metal, the more will be the possibility of the metal getting corroded.

OR

Cu_(s)→ Cu²⁺_(aq) + 2e^-

2Ag⁺_(aq) + 2e^-→ 2Ag_(s)

Cu_(s) + 2Ag⁺_(aq)→ Cu²⁺_(aq) + 2Ag_(s)

Nernst equation

E_cell = E⁰_cell -

 = - (Cu²⁺/Cu)

= 0.80 – 0.34 = 0.46V

E_cell = 0.46 - 

=  0.46 - 

= 0.46 – 0.21 = 0.25V

A colloidal solution, occasionally identified as a colloidal suspension, is a mixture in which the substances are regularly suspended in a fluid. Colloidal systems can occur in any of the three key states of matter gas, liquid or solid. In other words, a colloidal is a microscopically small substance that is equally dispersed throughout in another material.

(i) So₂ can act as both oxidising as well as reducing agent since it has +4 oxidation state which is exactly b/w its highest state +6 & lowest oxidation state +2 it can change its oxidation number either from +4 to -2 (reduction) & +4 to +6 (oxidation)

Where asH₂S the oxidation state of sulphur is -2 so it can lose electrons to +4 & +6 oxidation state but it cannot gain electron H₂s act as only reducing agent.

(ii) Halogens have an unpaired electron that is present in the outermost shell of atom. When photons of suitable energy hit atom, the electron gets excited & moves higher energy state in the atom, they absorb energy from visible region & show the colour.

(i) Because ethers contain O atom that fuses two carbons, the overall shape of the molecule somewhat similar to H₂o it is V shaped molecule because there is angle between oxygen bonds.

(ii) Because hydrogen bonds can’t form b/w the molecule in the ether, the boiling point of this compound is more than so, lower than the corresponding alcohol. As a result, ethers are less likely to be soluble in water than the alcohol with same molecular weight.

(i) Clemmensen reduction reaction:-

(ii) Rosenmund reaction:-

(iii) The Cannizzaro reaction is a chemical rxn that involves the base-induced disproportional of an aldehyde lacking of hydrogen atom in alpha position…. Hydrogen present. Hence formaldehyde undergoes Cannizzaro reaction whereas acetaldehyde does not.

(i) The Carbonyl group on aldehyde &ketons is particularly to nucleophilic addition due to high electronegativity of oxygen atom double bonded to carbon atom. Hence oxygen acquires partial +ve change.

(ii) But the aromatic carboxylic acid carry atleast 7 carbons atom. It belongs to higher molecules weight carboxylic acid. They are solid at room temperature because of vander walls force in addition to hydrogen bonding. More force of attraction means molecular are more closer to form solid

(i) Phosphorus shows marked tendency for catenation but nitrogen shows little tendency for catenation. Nitrogen has very little tendency to show catenation as N-N bond is very weak because of the repulsion in the electron pair on the nitrogen atom.

(ii) SF₆ exists but SH₆ does not because fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table, the size is extremely small so it has greater polarising power & has small h bonding, but in SH₆ then the electronegativity of sulphur is much more than hydrogen, hydrogen doesn't have sufficient Nuclear charge.

(iii)

In XeF₄, central atom Xe is Sp₃d₂hyberdised

Having 2 lone pair on it so shape of molecule will be square planer. The valense shell of Xe contains 2 electrons in 5s orbital & six electrons in 5p orbital. In the 5p orbital there is place for d orbital f-orbital electrons in outermost orbit of Xe two of the 5s & 5p electrons get excited to the vaccent 5d orbitals. 2 in 5p & 2 in 5d orbitals four fluorine atom bond with these four electrons. The remaining two points pairs hybridised electrons are free on either side of central atom.

(i) Steps involved in contact process:-

SO₂ is produced by roasting metallic sulphides in air

4FeS₂  +  11O₂à 2Fe₂O₃ + 8SO₂

Purification of Gases

The efficiency of catalyst, various impurities present in mixture of sulphur dioxide & air are first removed

Catalytic Oxidation of Sulpher Dioxide:-

2SO₂+O₂   >  2SO₃

Absorption of Sulpher trioxide in Sulphuric Acid:-

SO₃  + H₂ SO₄ à  H₂S₂O₇   (oleum)

Dilution of Oleum to Obtain Sulphuric Acid:-

A calculated amount of water is added to obtain sulphuric acid of desired strength

H₂S₂O₇  + H₂Oà 2H₂SO₄ 

(ii)   KI + 3O₃ àKIO₃  + 3O₂

Potassium iodide react with ozone to produce potassium iodate &oxygee. This reaction take place in heat, concentrated solution potassium hydroxide.

(iii) The structure of Clf₃ is trigonal bipyramidal with a 175⁰ F-Cl-F bond angle. There are 2 equatorial lone pairs making the final structure T shaped

(i)

• Their partically empty d-orbitals provide surface area.
• They show multiple oxidation state & by giving electrons to reactants they from complexes & lower their energies.

(ii) MnO₄  +  2H₂O  + 3e  à  MnO₂ (s)  + 4OH (gained 3 electrons)

In this case

3 equivalent per mole 

equivalent mass of KMNO₄  =  M/3

                                                 = 158.04 /3

                                                 = 52.68 gram/equivalent

(iii) The Lanthanoid contraction is caused by poor shielding effect of the 4f electrons. Gd because as atomic number increases, the decrease the atomic number radii. Yb because it has large atomic number. Because the elements in row 3 have 4f electrons.

(i)

• Both have prominent oxidation state +3
• They are involved in filling of (n-2) f orbitals
• They are highly electropositive & very reactive in nature.
• They are two additional rows below the periodic table
• Due to similar outermost electronic configuration
• They are two big families of iso-structural natural & synthesized chemical elements.

(ii) Co²⁺  will be paramagnetic because it has unpaired electrons.

(iii) Structure of permanganate ion:-

(i) Balz-Schiemann reaction:-

(ii) Fitting's reaction:-

(iii) Gattermann reaction  :-

(iv) Finkelstein reaction:-

CH₃CH₂Cl + NaI     CH₃CH₂I + NaCl

(ethyl chloride)

(v) Diazotisation reaction:-

(i) Aqueous Kott is alkaline in nature, These hydroxide ion act as strong nucleophile & replace the halogen atom in an alkyl halide

Rcl + KOH (aq) à ROH + Kcl

This result in formation of alcohol & the reaction is known as nucleophile substitution reaction

Alcohlic KOH, especially in ethanol produces C₂H₅O^- ions. The C₂H₅O^-ions is stronger base than OH^-ions the former abstract the B-hydrogen of an alkylhalide to produce alkenes.

CH₃ CH₂ Br + KOH(alc)  à  H₂C = CH₂ + KBr + H₂O

(ii) The courtz-fitting rxn is the chemical rxn of aryl halides with alkyl halides & sodium metal in the presence of dry ether to give substituted aromatic compounds. The rxn works best for forming assymeterical products if the halide reactant are separate in their relative chemical reactivities.

Alkyl halides are generally used example for nucleophilic substation reaction because they have good tendency leaving group the halide group Regardless of whether you’re looking at an SN₁& SN ₂ reaction, You will need a good leaving group. Halides are relatively weak base, which basically means that they are energetically stable. –ve charge stabilized, It is less reactive It can just hang out there in Sol as a counter ion & long as you have a stronger nucleophile in solⁿ.