1M urea has a higher freezing point.

Rate = K[A]¹

  = Kmol^-1

R =       =>    S^-1

Tollen’s reagent is a chemical reagent used to determine the presence of aldehyde, aromatic aldehyde and hydroxyl ketone functional group.

C₂H₅CONH₂ + Br₂ + 4KOH → C₆H₅NH₂ + K₂CO₃ + 2KBr + 2H₂O

Alpha – Tocophenol; D – alpha Tocophenol.

Antiseptics.

True

(one sixth of tetrahedral) P  Q   O₁→ (octahedral voids).

=> PQO₃

Number of an elementary process would have a rate law order equal to its molecularity and therefore must be integer values.

Rate = K[A]^1/2    [B]²

Order =

Order = 2.5

The order can be a fractional value. Hence it’s not an elementary reaction.

In this process, nickel is heated in the presence of carbon monoxide to form nickel tetra carbonyl which is a volatile complex.

Ni + 4CO Ni(CO)_4.

Ni(CO)₄ Ni + CO.

The obtained nickel tetra carbonyl is decomposed by subjecting it to higher temperature to obtain nickel.

Transition elements have high effective nuclear charge and number of valence electrons. Therefore, they form strong metallic bonds. As a result, the enthalpies of atomization of transition elements is high.

In the presence of CN – the 3d electrons pair up leaving only one unpaired electron. The hybridisation is d₂SP³ forming an inner orbital complex in the presence of H₂O. 3d electrons do not pair up. The hybridisation is SP³d₂ forming an outer orbital complex containing five unpaired electrons.

[Fe(CN)₆]^-3 has a low spin complex because it has the lowest number of unpaired electrons for an octahedral iron(iii) complex. [Fe(H₂O)₆]^-3has a high spin because it has the number of electrons.

Acetylation of aniline reduces its activation effect because it results in decrease of electron density on nitrogen. Due resonance, the electron pair of nitrogen atom gets delocalised towards the carbonyl group.

​​​​​​​

Biodegradable polymers are polymers which are degraded by micro-organisms within a given period of time so that biodegradable polymers and the degraded product do not cause effects on the environment egDextron, Nylon2-nylon-6.

These polymers are mainly used for medical purposes such as surgical materials, tissue in growth materials for controlled drug release etc. They are also used in agriculture film seed coating, fast food wrappers etc. poly-B hydroxybutyrate-CO-B-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) is a biodegradable aliphatic polyester.

(a) Formula of Ni_0.98  O_1.00

So, the ratio of Ni : O  => 98: 100, hence there are 100 atoms of oxygen and 98 atoms of nickel.

Let number of atoms of Ni²⁺ = x

Let number of atoms of Ni³⁺ = 98-x

Charge of Ni = charge on O

Hence oxygen has a charge of -2

3(98-x) + 2x = 2(100)

294 – 3x + 2x = 200

+x = +94

x = 94

percentage of Ni²⁺ = (atoms of Ni⁺²/ total number of Ni) 100

=>

=> 96%

Percentage of Ni³⁺ = 100 – Ni⁺²

                                  = 100 – 96

                                  = 4%

(a) Freezing point of the solution with increase. Mercuric Iodide will react with potassium iodide to form dipotassium tetra iodo mercury. The reaction is given by:-

2KI + HgI₂ = K₂[HgI₄]. This associate will decrease the number of ions in the solution as a result of Van’t Hoff factor will decrease as n decrease from 4 to 3.

Molarity = 12.61 Molar and 7.96ml of HCl (38%) needed for 1.0 litres of 0.10 Molar HCl.

(b) HCl(38%) =

=

=> moles of HCl in 38g =

=> volume of solution containing 1.06 mole of HCl =

Molarity of HCl (38%) =

= 12.62Molar HCl

(a) The standard hydrogen electrode is the standard measurement of electrode potential for the thermodynamic scale of redox potentials. The standard hydrogen electrode is called (SHE) or maybe known as normal hydrogen electrode (NHE)

              2H⁺ + 2e^-→ H_2(g) at 25⁰C

(b) Faraday is a unit of charge not electricity. Passing one faraday charge can yield one mole a substance having a single charge on each molecule or atom.

Ag_(s) | AgNO₃ (0.01M) || AgNO₃ (1.0) Ag_(s)

0.80 -

0.80 – 0.0591

0.80 – 0.051 * 1

= 0.7409V

(a)

(b) The main purpose of dialysis is to help patients with impaired renal function. When the kidneys are damaged, they are no longer able to remove waste and excess fluid from the blood stream efficiently. Wastes such as nitrogen and creatinine build up in the blood stream.

(a) H₃PO₃ is a triprotic acid because it has 2P―OH bonds and 1P―H bonds. H₃PO₄  contains 3P―OH bonds therefore H₃PO₄ is a triprotic acid.

(b) In NCl₃, nitrogen and chlorine have similar electro-negativities resulting in non-polar bonds. Nitrogen doesn’t have empty d-orbitals so hydrolysis takes place with donation of a lone pair of electrons by nitrogen to the hydrogen atom by water.

NCl₃  + H₂O → NH₃ + 3HOCl

In PCl₃, phosphorus is less electronegative than Cl. They form polar bonds, so the positive polar charge on phosphorus attacks the lone pair of electrons.

PCl₃ + 3H₂O → H₃PO₃ + 3HCl

(a) Phenol is a very weak acid. The position of equilibrium lies to the left. Phenol can lose a hydrogen ion because the phenoxide ion formed is stabilised to some extent. The negative charge on the oxygen atom is delocalised around the ring. The more stable the ion.

(b) Diagram to show mechanism of the reaction:-

Step 1:-

Step 2:-

(a) Etard reaction:-

Etard reaction is used to produce benzaldehyde from toluene. Reagent used is CrO₂Cl₂.

Toluene can be oxidised to benzaldehyde.

Gattermann Koach reaction:-

(b) This is because both show steric and electronic effect. In aldehydes, the relatively small hydrogen atom is attached to one side of the carbonyl group while a larger R group is affixed to the other side.

(a) Claisen Schmidt Condesation:-

Eg. α –β unsaturated aldehyde.

Kolbe’s Schmidt reaction:-

Eg. in personal care product.

(b) Many nucleophiles like ammonia and derivatives of ammonia can also be added to the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones. The reaction of ammonia and its derivatives is reversible and the reaction in the presence of an acid to form aaddtional products. The reaction equilibrium helps with production formation because fast dehydration of the intermediate complex.

Hydrozones of aldehydes and ketones are not prepared in highly acidic medium. In highly acidic medium the protonation of hydrazine decreases in nucleophilic character. Hydrozones of aldehydes and ketones are not prepared in highly acidic medium.

(a) Fluorine differs from the rest of other members because of its small size, high electro-negativity and non-availability of d-orbitals in the valence shell. Fluorine is the most reactive halogen due to its low enthalpy.

(b) Sulphuric acid is an oily and viscous liquid because it is dense, colourless and a highly corrosive liquid most commonly known as hydrogen sulphate.

(c) Cu + 4HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2H₂O + 2NO₂

(a) Fluorine does not possess d-orbitals, so it can’t expand its octet bond with three chlorine atoms and form FCl₃. Chlorine on the other hand has empty d-orbitals and thus it can expand its octet to bond with three fluorine atoms to form ClF₃.

(b) ICl₃ is more reactive than I₂ because I―Cl bond in ICl is weaker than I―I bond in I₂.

(c) Xenon has 8 valence e^-

Oxygen has 6 valence e^-

xe = 4d¹⁰  5s²  5p⁶  5d⁸ (in ground state)

In excited state:-

These of e^- form π bonds with the same oxygen atoms.

Shape of XeO₄ :-

In fourth excited, xenon atom has 8 unpaired electrons. Shape of XeO₄ is tetrahedral with a bond angle of 109⁰.

(a) Due to lanthanoide contraction.

(b) 6NaCl      +     K₂Cr₂O₇        +     H₂SO₄        →      3Cl₂  +    Cr₂(SO₄)₃    +         3Na₂SO₄      +      K₂SO₄     +     7H₂O

_{(sodium chloride)  (potassium dichromate)  (sulphuric acid)     (chlorine)     (chromium sulphate)   (sodium sulphate)  (potassium sulphate)  (water)}  

Sodium chloride reacts with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid to produce chlorine, chromium sulphate, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate and water.

Sodium chloride should be solid and heated concentrated sulphuric acid solution.

(c) The atomic radii of transition elements in any series are not much different from each other. They can very easily replace each other in the lattice and form solid solution, an appreciable composition range. Such solutions are called alloys.

(a) When heated strongly, it decomposes with evolution of oxygen.

4K₂Cr₂O₇→ 4K₂CrO₄ + 2Cr₂O₃ + 3O₂

(b) Transition elements are d-block elements. They have valence shell configuration of (n-1) d^1-10. Because small size and higher nuclear charge, availability of valence d-orbital of suitable energy to accommodate lone pair of electrons donated by ligands.

(c) 5-d elements have high nuclear charge than 4d- elements. Therefore, the outer electrons are attached strongly attached by nucleus in 5d – elements. On the other hand, shielding effect of 4f electron is very poor due to 5d elements.

(b) Chloro benzene is more electronegative than cyclohexyl chloride. The density of electrons in C―Cl bond of chlorine atom is less than that cyclohexyl chloride. This results into a decrease in the polarity of the C―Cl bond. Hence the dipole moment of chloro benzene is lower than cyclohexyl chloride.

(a) Ethyl bromide + silver cyanide → ethyl isocyanide + silver bromide.

CH₃CHâ‚‚-Br + AgCN → CH₃CHâ‚‚-NC + AgBr.

(b) Isopropylbromide to Propene:-
 

(c) Aniline to Flourobenzene:-

(d) Chlorobenzene to D.D.T. :-

(e) Bromoethane to iodoethane :-

CH₃CH₂Cl + NaI   Acetone  CH₃CH₂I + Nacl

(f) Chlorobenzene to Aniline:-